[ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
Source: EUROSTAT (1997), Labour Costs 1992, Principal results.
40
INVESTMENT IN HUMAN CAPITAL
public and private expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP. However,
in many countries, companies also contribute to the formation of human capital
through the payment of levies for vocational or apprenticeship training.
Investments by families on human capital
Families make a considerable investment in activities that can directly or Family investment in human
indirectly influence the development of human capital in their children. This capital can be hard to separate
investment is not only financial. Parental investment of time and the fostering out from the high overall level of
of learning attitudes and habits are important inputs to the creation of human spending on children...
capital. Outlays for cost of tuition, educational materials and other costs
associated with formal education can have a direct impact. Other spending that
influences the quality of children s lives can have an indirect effect, which cannot
readily be quantified. Although the total cost of rearing children from birth to
early adulthood is not exclusively related to human capital investment as
defined in this report, it is noteworthy that the total of such spending far exceeds
the cost of formal education either to public authorities or families. A study
by Haveman and Wolfe (1995) found that annual expenditure on children aged
0-18 accounted for almost 15 per cent of GDP in the United States in 1992. They
found that the private costs associated with housing, feeding, clothing, health
care and transporting, as well as the indirect costs represented by the forgone
earnings of mothers accounted for two thirds of all expenditure on children or
approximately 10 per cent of GDP. Public costs included expenditure for
education as well as a wide range of social expenditure specifically aimed at
young people (including services for disadvantaged young people).
Although there is no way of measuring the exact degree to which spending ...although the number
on families contributes to the creation of skills and competencies, some of computers in homes is one
indicators give a partial picture. One example is the availability of computers indicator.
in the home (see box).
Information technology and informal learning
The use of home computers has increased significantly in recent years. A
major purpose of personal computers is education and informal learning.
Consequently, disparities in home ownership of computers may have considerable
consequences for educational achievements.
Percentage of households with personal computers in 1995
Denmark* 32.0
Canada 28.8
Netherlands 27.0
United States 25.5
Germany 25.0
Belgium 21.0
United Kingdom 20.0
Ireland 18.0
Japan 15.6
France 14.3
Italy 14.0
Spain 12.0
* 1996 data.
Source: OECD (1997d), Information Technology Outlook, Table 5.1, p. 88.
41
HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENT AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON
3. TIME INVESTMENT: MEASURING PARTICIPATION
Another measure of investment
Participation rates in formal education and adult education and training,
is the expected number
together with measures of duration, are an indication of how much time
of years spent by young people
individuals invest in developing human capital, as well as a reflection of the
in study.
learning opportunities available.
Participation in initial formal education
Two indicators developed by the OECD summarise the level of
participation of each country s population in formal education. The extent of
initial education for young people can be encapsulated by the number of
subsequent years of schooling expected by a 5 year old. An overlapping
measure, concentrating on post-secondary experiences throughout the life-span,
measures the expected number of years of tertiary education from age 17. Both
of these measures are shown in Figure 3.2.
Estimates show firstly that the The average number of years of enrolment in formal education that a
average years spent by a young 5-year-old child can expect up to the age of 29 is based on the current enrolment
person in education is fairly rates by age. This average number of years is just over 15, and in most countries
similar across OECD countries... the variation is within the relatively narrow band of between 14 and 17 years.
This measure differs from the estimated average number of years of schooling
discussed in Chapter 2 since the latter relates to the years completed by today s
adults, whereas schooling expectancy is based on the current enrolment rates
of young people at various ages.
... but secondly, that the average School expectancy includes participation in tertiary education provided it
amount of tertiary education takes place before the age of 29. This is a broad measure, influenced by the age
received over the whole of people s at which children start school, by the compulsory leaving age and by the rate at
lives varies more widely. which young people participate beyond that age. A more focused measure, shown
on the right hand side of the figure, looks only at the expected years of tertiary
education, based on current rates of participation by adults over all ages from
17 onwards. This is effectively the product of the number of years spent on tertiary
education courses and the proportion of the population who participate in them.
Since participation in upper secondary education is tending towards 100 per cent
in many countries, tertiary participation is becoming the most important
discretionary element in formal education systems. As shown in the figure, there [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]
zanotowane.pl doc.pisz.pl pdf.pisz.pl wyciskamy.pev.pl
Source: EUROSTAT (1997), Labour Costs 1992, Principal results.
40
INVESTMENT IN HUMAN CAPITAL
public and private expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP. However,
in many countries, companies also contribute to the formation of human capital
through the payment of levies for vocational or apprenticeship training.
Investments by families on human capital
Families make a considerable investment in activities that can directly or Family investment in human
indirectly influence the development of human capital in their children. This capital can be hard to separate
investment is not only financial. Parental investment of time and the fostering out from the high overall level of
of learning attitudes and habits are important inputs to the creation of human spending on children...
capital. Outlays for cost of tuition, educational materials and other costs
associated with formal education can have a direct impact. Other spending that
influences the quality of children s lives can have an indirect effect, which cannot
readily be quantified. Although the total cost of rearing children from birth to
early adulthood is not exclusively related to human capital investment as
defined in this report, it is noteworthy that the total of such spending far exceeds
the cost of formal education either to public authorities or families. A study
by Haveman and Wolfe (1995) found that annual expenditure on children aged
0-18 accounted for almost 15 per cent of GDP in the United States in 1992. They
found that the private costs associated with housing, feeding, clothing, health
care and transporting, as well as the indirect costs represented by the forgone
earnings of mothers accounted for two thirds of all expenditure on children or
approximately 10 per cent of GDP. Public costs included expenditure for
education as well as a wide range of social expenditure specifically aimed at
young people (including services for disadvantaged young people).
Although there is no way of measuring the exact degree to which spending ...although the number
on families contributes to the creation of skills and competencies, some of computers in homes is one
indicators give a partial picture. One example is the availability of computers indicator.
in the home (see box).
Information technology and informal learning
The use of home computers has increased significantly in recent years. A
major purpose of personal computers is education and informal learning.
Consequently, disparities in home ownership of computers may have considerable
consequences for educational achievements.
Percentage of households with personal computers in 1995
Denmark* 32.0
Canada 28.8
Netherlands 27.0
United States 25.5
Germany 25.0
Belgium 21.0
United Kingdom 20.0
Ireland 18.0
Japan 15.6
France 14.3
Italy 14.0
Spain 12.0
* 1996 data.
Source: OECD (1997d), Information Technology Outlook, Table 5.1, p. 88.
41
HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENT AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON
3. TIME INVESTMENT: MEASURING PARTICIPATION
Another measure of investment
Participation rates in formal education and adult education and training,
is the expected number
together with measures of duration, are an indication of how much time
of years spent by young people
individuals invest in developing human capital, as well as a reflection of the
in study.
learning opportunities available.
Participation in initial formal education
Two indicators developed by the OECD summarise the level of
participation of each country s population in formal education. The extent of
initial education for young people can be encapsulated by the number of
subsequent years of schooling expected by a 5 year old. An overlapping
measure, concentrating on post-secondary experiences throughout the life-span,
measures the expected number of years of tertiary education from age 17. Both
of these measures are shown in Figure 3.2.
Estimates show firstly that the The average number of years of enrolment in formal education that a
average years spent by a young 5-year-old child can expect up to the age of 29 is based on the current enrolment
person in education is fairly rates by age. This average number of years is just over 15, and in most countries
similar across OECD countries... the variation is within the relatively narrow band of between 14 and 17 years.
This measure differs from the estimated average number of years of schooling
discussed in Chapter 2 since the latter relates to the years completed by today s
adults, whereas schooling expectancy is based on the current enrolment rates
of young people at various ages.
... but secondly, that the average School expectancy includes participation in tertiary education provided it
amount of tertiary education takes place before the age of 29. This is a broad measure, influenced by the age
received over the whole of people s at which children start school, by the compulsory leaving age and by the rate at
lives varies more widely. which young people participate beyond that age. A more focused measure, shown
on the right hand side of the figure, looks only at the expected years of tertiary
education, based on current rates of participation by adults over all ages from
17 onwards. This is effectively the product of the number of years spent on tertiary
education courses and the proportion of the population who participate in them.
Since participation in upper secondary education is tending towards 100 per cent
in many countries, tertiary participation is becoming the most important
discretionary element in formal education systems. As shown in the figure, there [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]